Step 1: Building and protecting the silicon wafer
To engineer a chip, microscopic circuit patterns are built on multiple layers of various materials in a process repeated at least a few hundred times.
The wafer is like the chip’s ‘canvas’. It’s a thin, glossy disc that’s cut using specific diameters. Most wafers are made from silicon, which is extracted from sand, purified and then solidified into an ingot.
Before it’s completely cooled, the cone-shaped ends of the ingot are cut off while the body is sliced into wafers of uniform thickness. The bigger the wafer, the higher the productivity. Some pub quiz trivia for you: The largest wafer diameter used in semiconductor fabrication today is 12 inches.
Abrasive chemicals and machines polish the uneven surface of the wafer for a mirror-smooth finish that will allow circuit patterns to print better onto it. Then, a process of wet oxidation produces a smooth layer of silicon dioxide. This protects the surface of the disc from chemical impurities that can alter conductivity, damaging the circuit’s electrical properties.
Step 2: Imprinting the integrated circuit
In an integrated circuit (IC), numerous transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors are seamlessly connected, and each plays a different role in processing and storing electric signals. To make this, a complex pattern is transferred using photomasks that capture its miniaturized version in what’s called the photolithography process.
The circuit design is created with computer-aided design software and then duplicated onto a glass substrate made of ultra-pure quartz with a beam of electrons – and a photomask is born.
Step 3: The etching process
The etching process in semiconductor fabrication uses a liquid or gas etchant to selectively remove unnecessary parts until the desired circuit patterns are left on the wafer surface.
Even though it’s more costly and complicated, dry etching (also called plasma etching) is the more widely used technique as it produces a higher yield.
To start, we need a plasma state. A radical atom dissociated from this plasma state becomes volatile and moves away from the wafer surface, peeling off surface material that was not previously coated and protected with photoresist.
Step 4: The thin-film process
For a semiconductor chip to get the desired electrical properties, materials at atomic or molecular levels are densely piled up in a film so thin that highly elaborate tech is essential for even deposition.
Let’s say we are forming a 1 micrometre-thick film on an 8-inch wafer. This would be the equivalent of evenly piling up sand 1mm thick on a 200-metre-wide schoolyard. Pretty high-tech, right?
The methods of depositing these materials can be divided into physical vapour deposition (PVD) and chemical vapour deposition (CVD). The more common CVD method can be broken down into thermal, plasma-enhanced and optical CVD depending on the source of external energy used.
The thin film fabricated through the deposition process gets categorized into metal (conducting) layers for electrical connections between circuits, and dielectric (insulating) layers that electrically isolate the internal layers, protecting them from contaminants.
What comes next is the process of implanting ions in the form of fine gas particles on the deposited layer so that the semiconductors can develop electric properties.
Step 5: The metal interconnect process
The metal interconnect process ensures the electronic elements are connected via metal circuits so that signals can reach where they need to.
Great adhesiveness to silicon dioxide and high processability makes aluminium a popular substance for the metal interconnect process, although nowadays copper is getting in on the act thanks to its cost-effectiveness and better conductivity properties.
Aluminium circuits are created through physical vapour deposition using plasma. When a mass of aluminium is boiled in a decompressed vacuum chamber, the chamber gets filled with aluminium particles. A wafer is then inserted into the vacuum chamber where the aluminium particles stick to it.
Step 6: The EDS Process
When we’re about to complete the fabrication of our semiconductor, we need to look at the yield. This is the percentage of functional chips out of the total chips designed on a single wafer.
Generally, the higher the yield, the higher the productivity, so it’s key for manufacturers to keep the yield rate high. Several factors are crucial here: the cleanliness of the cleanroom, the accuracy of the processing equipment and the conditions of each process.
Semiconductor chips will then be subject to strings of tests including the electrical die sorting (EDS) test. The EDS process verifies that each chip that leaves the facilities meets the manufacturer’s standards. Defective chips are marked with a dot of ink and discarded.
Step 7: Packaging
If the IC were the human brain, its packaging would be the nervous system and skeletal structure.
Semiconductor packaging serves a variety of purposes: ensuring the inter-terminal connection, supplying electricity, and providing heat resistance and protection for the IC. The packaging also ensures protection from external factors, like humidity, chemicals, impact and vibration.
First, wafers are cut into individual chips with a diamond cutter. Functional chips are placed on a lead frame or printed circuit board, which are then attached with balls that provide an electrical connection. The lead frame delivers electrical signals between the semiconductor chip and the board while offering structural support to protect the chip.
After the chips are attached to the lead frames, they undergo the moulding process. At this stage, intense heat is applied to an epoxy moulding compound made of resin, which is liquefied and shaped into the desired external shell.
Step 8: Testing
Once packaged, we need to check the chip works properly. Chips are tested under various conditions of voltage, electrical signals and temperature. This way, we can measure their electrical and functional characteristics as well as their performance to detect any defects. At Samsung, we collect and analyse the data accumulated during the test and give feedback to the teams overseeing the manufacturing and assembly processes to improve product quality.
Finally, the name of the IC, date and origin of manufacture, product characteristics and serial number are printed on the product.
A better future for chips
Right now, the business of producing semiconductor chips is a complex process. But innovative manufacturers are leading the charge toward a sustainable and future-proofed chip supply. Pioneering methods in manufacturing, sustainability and power-saving are the keys to this process.
By working collaboratively with the industry, Samsung is exploring innovations in these elements and overcoming the hurdles that surround them. For example, using cutting-edge High-K Metal Gate technology, we developed the industry’s first 512GB DRAM integrated chip to power the most extreme workloads in supercomputing, machine learning and data analytics applications.
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In the realm of modern technology, semiconductor play a pivotal role, serving as the cornerstone of electronic devices. These tiny, yet powerful components, typically manufacturing from silicon or germanium, have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate.
Their ability to amplify, switch, and process electrical signals has enabled the development of a vast array of electronic devices, from computers and smartphones to medical equipment and industrial machinery.
Let’s delve even deeper into each step of semiconductor manufacturing, providing a more comprehensive overview:
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The journey starts by preparing silicon wafers, which serve as the foundation for building semiconductor devices. Typically, these wafers have a diameter of 300 millimeters, and manufacturers slice them from a silicon ingot. Following this, they polish the wafers to achieve an extremely smooth surface, creating an impeccable canvas for subsequent steps.
Rigorous testing examines silicon wafers for defects, and chemical and mechanical processes remove any impurities. The wafers undergo precise slicing and polishing to achieve an ultra-smooth surface. Frequently, manufacturers deposit a thin layer of oxide or nitride to insulate and protect the silicon wafers.
Importance: Wafer quality is paramount, as it sets the stage for flawless semiconductor device fabrication.
Read More: 15 Top Semiconductor companies in the World – techovedas
The intricate patterns of transistors and other circuit elements are transferred onto the wafer using a process called lithography. This involves coating the wafer with a photosensitive material called photoresist, exposing it to ultraviolet light through a mask, and then developing the resist to reveal the desired patterns.
Lithography involves multiple steps. Apply a photoresist to the wafer, expose it to light through a mask with the desired circuit pattern, and chemically treat it to develop the pattern. Advanced techniques like electron-beam and EUV lithography offer enhanced precision for smaller feature sizes.
Importance: The accuracy and resolution of lithography dictate the intricacy and density of the semiconductor circuitry.
The exposed areas of the wafer are then selectively removed using a process called etching. This involves either wet etching, using chemicals to dissolve the unwanted material, or dry etching, using plasma or ions to bombard and remove the material. The remaining patterns form the physical structures of the semiconductor devices.
Etching processes, whether wet or dry, are meticulously controlled. Wet etching utilizes chemical solutions to selectively remove material, while dry etching uses plasma or ions for more precise material removal. Multiple etching steps may be employed to create different structures.
Importance: Etching defines the three-dimensional structures of transistors, interconnects, and other components on the wafer.
Intentionally introduce impurities into the silicon material to impart the desired electrical properties through a process called doping. This involves diffusing or implanting dopant atoms into the wafer, altering the conductivity of the semiconductor and enabling it to conduct electricity.
Introduce dopant atoms, such as phosphorus or boron, into the silicon wafer through diffusion or implantation. Precise control of doping levels and distribution is critical for creating regions with specific electrical properties.
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Importance: Doping transforms the semiconductor material into regions with varying conductivity, enabling the formation of essential electronic components.
Form a network of metal conductors on the wafer using the metallization process. This involves depositing thin layers of conductive metals, such as aluminum or copper, using techniques like physical vapor deposition (PVD) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD). These metal layers connect the various components of the semiconductor device.
Metal deposition involves techniques like physical vapor deposition (PVD) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD) to create conductive layers. Apply a barrier layer, often made of titanium or tantalum, first, followed by depositing copper or aluminum.
Importance: Metallization establishes the electrical interconnections between various semiconductor components, forming the intricate circuitry.
Read More: Texas Instruments Breaks Ground on $11 Billion 300mm Wafer Fab in USA – techovedas
Deposit a thin layer of passivating material on the wafer to protect the semiconductor device from environmental contaminants. This layer, often made of silicon nitride or another protective material, prevents corrosion and oxidation, ensuring the long-term reliability of the device.
Passivation layers, typically made of silicon dioxide, nitride, or a combination, are applied to protect the semiconductor from environmental factors, including moisture and contaminants. Chemical treatments ensure a uniform and effective passivation layer.
Importance: Passivation enhances the reliability and longevity of semiconductor devices by preventing environmental damage.
To isolate the metal conductors and prevent short circuits, a layer of dielectric material is deposited on the wafer. This layer, typically made of silicon dioxide or another insulating material, ensures that electrical signals flow through the intended paths.
Strategically deposit dielectrics, such as silicon dioxide or hafnium oxide, to insulate and separate different layers of circuitry. Precise control over dielectric thickness is crucial to avoid electrical interference.
Importance: Dielectrics play a pivotal role in preventing unwanted electrical interactions, enabling the proper functioning of individual semiconductor components.
Encapsulate the individual semiconductor chips in protective packages to shield them from physical damage and environmental contaminants.This packaging process involves attaching the chip to a lead frame that provides electrical connections and enclosing it in a protective casing made of epoxy or ceramic.
Packaging involves encapsulating the semiconductor device in a protective casing, often using materials like ceramics or plastics. Establish electrical connections using wire bonding or flip-chip techniques, and seal the package to shield the device from external elements.
Importance: Proper packaging ensures the durability, reliability, and thermal performance of the semiconductor device in real-world applications.
Testing: The final step involves rigorous testing of the packaged semiconductor chips to ensure they meet the desired performance specifications. This involves electrical testing, functional testing, and environmental testing to verify the chip’s functionality, reliability, and ability to withstand various operating conditions.
Semiconductor testing ensures quality and functionality throughout manufacturing. Wafer testing identifies defects early, burn-in tests assess device endurance, and final testing verifies specifications. System-level and functional testing evaluate integrated and operational aspects. Reliability testing predicts long-term performance. Quality control and failure analysis ensure consistent quality, and packaging completes the process.
The intricate process of semiconductor manufacturing, spanning multiple steps and involving specialized equipment and techniques, has revolutionized the electronics industry and enabled the creation of devices that have transformed our lives. From the microprocessors that power our computers to the sensors that enable smartphones to function, these tiny components play a vital role in shaping our modern world.
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