Interactions in scintillation materials
Electromagnetic radiation can interact with matter via 1. photoelectric effect, 2. Compton effect or 3. pair production. Effect 3 only occurs at energies above 1.02 MeV. In practice, all effects have a chance to occur, this chance being proportional to the energy of the radiation and the atomic number (Z-value) of the absorber (the scintillation material).
In the Photoelectric effect, all energy of the radiation is converted into light. This effect is important when determining the actual energy of the impinging X-ray or gamma-ray photons. The lower the energy and the higher the Z-value, the larger the chance on photo effect.
In real applications several interaction processes play a role.
Fig. 2.1 shows a typical pulse height spectrum measured with a 76 mm diameter, 76 mm high NaI(Tl) crystal in which the radiation emitted by a 137Cs source is detected. The photopeak, Compton maximum and backscatter peak are indicated. The lines around 30 keV are Ba X-rays also emitted by the source.
The total detection efficiency (counting efficiency) of a scintillator depends on the size, thickness and density of the scintillation material. However, the photopeak counting efficiency, important for e.g. gamma-ray spectroscopy, is a strong function of and increases with the Z4-5 of the scintillator. At energies below 100 keV, electromagnetic interactions are dominated by the photoelectric effect.
Electrons (e.g. β-particles) can be backscattered from a material which implies that no energy is lost in the interaction process and the particle is not detected at all. The backscattering fraction is proportional to the Z of the material. For NaI(Tl) the backscatter fraction can be as high as 30% .! This implies that for efficient detection of electrons, low Z materials such as plastic scintillators or e.g. CaF2:Eu or YAP:Ce are preferred. Also the window material is of importance.
a. Pulse height spectrometry
The basic principle of pulse height spectroscopy is that the light output of a scintillator is proportional to the energy deposited in the scintillation material. The standard way to detect scintillation light is to couple a scintillator to a photomultiplier. Furthermore, a γray spectrometer usually consists of a preamplifier, a main (spectroscopy) amplifier and a multichannel analyzer (MCA). The electronics amplifies the PMT charge pulse resulting in a voltage pulse suited to detect and analyze with the MCA. The schematic is shown in below.
Alternatively, currently available digital techniques allow to directly digitize the (pre-amplified) pulses of the light detector (e.g. PMT or SiPm). Often programmable FPGA’s are used for this. The optimum digital filtering constant (just as analog shaping time) depends on the speed of the scintillation material.
The combination of a 14 pins scintillation detector and a so-called “digital base” allows to construct a compact gamma spectrometer that can be operated via a USB or Ethernet port of a computer.
b. Energy resolution, proportionality
An important aspect of a Gamma-ray spectrometer is the ability to discriminate between Gamma-rays with slightly different energy. This quality is characterized by the socalled energy resolution which is defined as the (relative) width at half the height of the photopeak at a certain energy.
Besides by the γ-ray energy, the energy resolution is influenced by :
At low energies where photoelectron statistics dominate the energy resolution, the energy resolution is roughly inverse proportional to the square root of the γ-ray energy.
In principle, the amount of light a scintillator emits per unit energy as a function of the energy is constant. However this is not the physical reality. This so called non-proportionality is vastly different for different scintillators and in the classic alkali halides it provides the limitation of the energy resolution in the MeV energy range. Below the proportionality of some typical scintillation materials is shown.
Gamma ray interaction in materials includes photo-electric effect, Compton effect and pair production. Usually a combination of several of them takes place. Gamma ray interaction n materials results in the production of energetic electrons. A non-proportional electron energy versus light response leads to a broadening of the photopeaks.
Ref. W. Mengesha, T.D. Taulbee, B .D. Rooney, and J.D. Valentine.Light Yield
Nonproportionality of CsI(Tl), CsI(Na), and YAP IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. vol 45, no. 3,
() pp. 456–461
.
Scintillator proportionality is a material constant, different for each material
As such the energy resolution of a scintillator can be described with the formula below :
Term 1 is the proportionality; term 2 the contribution by the statistics (amount of light produced per interaction) and term 3 inhomogeneity effects in for example PMT or scintillator.
The energy resolution of a scintillation detector is a true detector property, limited by the physical characteristics of the scintillator and the PMT or other readout device.
A typical energy resolution for 662 keV γrays absorbed in small NaI(Tl) detectors is 7.0 % FWHM. At low energies, e.g. at 5.9 keV, a typical value is 40 % FWHM. At these low energies, surface treatment of the scintillation crystal strongly influences the resolution. It may be clear that especially at low energies, scintillation detectors are low resolution devices unlike Si(Li) or HPGe detectors.
The use of more proportional crystals like e.g. LaBr3:Ce, LBC, CeBr3 or SrI2(Eu) allows to achieve energy resolution numbers at 662 keV gamma rays down to the 3-4 % level. In the section on high resolution crystals more details are provided on proportional scintillation Crystals.
c. Time resolution
The time resolution of a scintillation detector reflects the ability to define accurately the moment of absorption of a radiation quantum in the detector.
The light pulse of a scintillator is characterized by a rise time and by a 1/e fall time τ (decay time see the section on scintillation properties It is obvious that the best time definition of an absorption event is obtained when the scintillation pulse is short (small decay time) and intense. Furthermore, the rise time and time jitter (also called transit time spread, TTS) of the PMT and of the electronics are important. For semiconductor readout similar properties apply.
Small cm size NaI(Tl) detectors have typical time resolutions of a few nanoseconds for 60Co (1.2 MeV). Much better time resolutions can be attained with organic – or BaF2 scintillation crystals. BaF2 is presently the fastest known inorganic scintillator with detector time resolutions of a few hundred picoseconds. Also Cerium bromide (CeBr3) scintillators allow comparable time resolutions.
d. Peak-to-valley ratio
A sensitive way to check the energy resolution of a scintillation detector is to define a so-called peak-to-valley (P/V) in the energy spectrum. This criteria is not depending on any possible offsets in the signal. Either the peak-to-valley between two gamma peaks is taken or the ratio between a low energy peak and the PMT / electronical noise.
A good P/V ratio for a 76 x 76 mm NaI(Tl) crystal is 10:1. This is equivalent to an energy resolution of 7.0% at 662 keV. At 5.9 keV, a high quality NaI(Tl) X-ray detector can have a P/V ratio of 40:1.
e. Spectrum stabilization
Large count rate changes and temperature variations may cause peak position variations in a spectrum. This effect is unavoidable in scintillation detectors since the light output of the scintillator and light detector amplification is (in most cases) temperature dependent.
An additional program in the case of photomultiplier readout is hysteresis and memory effects in PMTs which complicates correction algorithms. In silicon photomultipliers this effect is not present.
To compensate for these effects it is possible to calibrate the peak position with a so-called Am-pulser.
This is a very small radioactive 241Am source mounted inside a scintillation detector. The α-particles, emitted by the 241Am, cause scintillations in the crystal that are detected by the PMT (or the photodiode) of the detector. For NaI(Tl), the α-peak is situated between a Gamma Equivalent Energy (GEE) of 1.5 and 3.5 MeV and can be specified. Count rates are typically 50, 100 or 200 cps. The position of the pulser peak is used as a reference to compensate for the above mentioned variations in detector response.
The above way of calibration is not ideal since the response of most scintillation crystals for Gamma-rays and α-particles is different. However, a second order compensation using e.g. a thermistor is only necessary for large temperature ranges.
For occasionally monitoring your system integrity, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or laser ports can also be used. LEDs can be mounted inside scintillation detectors or a window for that purpose can be provided. Some special systems exist that intrinsically stabilize gain of the detector by injecting pulsed LED light into the light detector and by comparing it to the signal of a (stable) built-in semiconductor detector.
Besides the above described ways of pulse height stabilization, it is of course also possible to stabilize electronically on the peak of an (always present) external source. Sometimes the 40K background line can be used for this purpose.
The global Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material market was valued at approximately USD 1.6 billion in . The market is projected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.2% from to . This growth trajectory is driven by increasing applications in medical imaging, nuclear medicine, and radiation detection. The demand for advanced scintillation materials is fueled by their crucial role in improving the precision and efficiency of detection systems used in various sectors, including healthcare and security. The market's expansion reflects the rising need for high-performance materials that can deliver accurate and reliable performance in detecting radiation.
AI and automation have significantly influenced the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material market by optimizing manufacturing processes and enhancing product quality. AI-driven technologies enable more precise control over the synthesis of scintillation crystals, leading to improved material properties and performance. Automation in production lines reduces manufacturing costs and increases output efficiency, contributing to a more scalable and cost-effective market landscape. These technological advancements are reshaping the market dynamics by facilitating the development of innovative scintillation materials with superior characteristics and enabling faster responses to evolving industry needs.
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The importance of Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market research reports lies in their ability to aid strategic planning, helping businesses develop effective strategies by understanding market trends and dynamics. They play a crucial role in risk management by identifying potential risks and challenges, allowing businesses to mitigate them proactively. These reports offer a competitive advantage by providing insights into competitors' strategies and Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market positioning. For investors, they provide critical data for making informed decisions by highlighting market forecasts and growth potential. Additionally, market research reports guide product development by understanding consumer needs and preferences, ensuring products meet market demands and drive business growth.
What are the Type driving the growth of the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market?
Growing demand for below Type around the world has had a direct impact on the growth of the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market:
Alkali Halide Scintillation Crystals, Oxyde Based Scintillation Crystals, Other
What are the Applications of Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market available in the Market?
Based on Application the Market is categorized into Below types that held the largest Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market share In .
Medical & Healthcare, Industrial Applications, Military & Defense, Physics Research Applications, Others
Who is the largest Manufacturers of Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market worldwide?
Saint-Gobain Crystals, Hilger Crystals+RMD, Alpha Spectra, Amcrys, Shanghai SICCAS, Scionix, Scitlion Technology, IRay Technology, Shalom Electro-optics, Kinheng Crystal, Anhui Crystro Crystal Materials, Qinhuangdao Intrinsic Crystal Technology
Short Description About Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market:
The global Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market is anticipated to rise at a considerable rate during the forecast period, between and . In , the market is growing steadily, and with the increasing adoption of strategies by key players, the market is expected to rise over the projected horizon.
North America, particularly the United States, will continue to play a pivotal role in the market's development. Any changes in the United States could significantly impact the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market growth trends. The market in North America is projected to grow considerably during the forecast period, driven by the high adoption of advanced technology and the presence of major industry players, creating ample growth opportunities.
Europe is also expected to experience significant growth in the global market, with a strong CAGR during the forecast period from to .
Despite intense competition, the clear global recovery trend keeps investors optimistic about the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market, with more new investments expected to enter the field in the future.
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Which regions are leading the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market?
North America (United States, Canada and Mexico)
Europe (Germany, UK, France, Italy, Russia and Turkey etc.)
Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, Australia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam)
South America (Brazil, Argentina, Columbia etc.)
Middle East and Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa)
What are the global trends in the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market? Would the market witness an increase or decline in the demand in the coming years?
What is the estimated demand for different types of products in Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market? What are the upcoming industry applications and trends for the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market?
What Are Projections of Global Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market Industry Considering Capacity, Production and Production Value? What Will Be the Estimation of Cost and Profit? What Will Be Market Share, Supply and Consumption? What about imports and Export?
Where will the strategic developments take the industry in the mid to long-term?
What are the factors contributing to the final price of Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market? What are the raw materials used for Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market manufacturing?
How big is the opportunity for the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market? How will the increasing adoption of Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market for mining impact the growth rate of the overall market?
How much is the global Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market worth? What was the value of the market In ?
Who are the major players operating in the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market? Which companies are the front runners?
Which are the recent industry trends that can be implemented to generate additional revenue streams?
What Should Be Entry Strategies, Countermeasures to Economic Impact, and Marketing Channels for Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market Industry?
1. Introduction of the Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market
Overview of the Market
Scope of Report
Assumptions
2. Executive Summary
3. Research Methodology of Verified Market Reports
Data Mining
Validation
Primary Interviews
List of Data Sources
4. Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market Outlook
Overview
Market Dynamics
Drivers
Restraints
Opportunities
Porters Five Force Model
Value Chain Analysis
5. Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market, By Product
6. Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market, By Application
7. Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market, By Geography
North America
Europe
Asia Pacific
Rest of the World
8. Inorganic Scintillation Crystal Material Market Competitive Landscape
Overview
Company Market Ranking
Key Development Strategies
9. Company Profiles
10. Appendix
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